This is Part II of a summary of the Federal Plain Language Guidelines (May 2011). Objective of this article is to provide a quick overview of the topics discussed in the Guidelines handbook. The handbook is available for download for free at plainlanguage.gov in PDF and Word formats. See Part I.

Document Writing

Sentences

Write short sentences

Express only one idea in each sentence. 

Break up complex information into smaller, easier-to-process sentences. 

Do not load a sentence with dependent clauses and exceptions. 

Keep subject, verb, and object close together

Follow the natural word order of an English sentence: subject – verb – object. 

Avoid too many modifiers, phrases, or clauses between these essential parts. 

Present the basic idea in the first sentence. Then add more sentences to provide details. 

For “if-then” provisions, start the sentence with the “if” condition. If there are many such provisions, put them into an “if-then” table.

Avoid double negatives and exceptions to exceptions

Change double negatives to a positive word or phrase. 

For example, instead of “no fewer than,” say “at least.”

An exception that contains an exception is just another form of a double negative. Rewrite the sentence to emphasize the positive.

Place the main idea before exceptions and conditions

Adding exceptions at the beginning forces the reader to re-read the sentence. First state the main idea, then state the exceptions and conditions. 

Use “if” for conditions. Use “when” (not “where”), if you need another “if” to introduce another clause or if the condition occurs regularly.

If an exception or condition is just a few words, and seeing it first will avoid misleading users, put it at the beginning.

If an exception or condition is long and the main clause is short, put the main clause at the beginning.

If a condition and the main clause are both long, put the main clause at the beginning.

If there are several exceptions or conditions, lead with “if” or a phrase such as “in the following circumstances” followed by a list of conditions or exceptions. 

Use numbers or letters to designate items in a list if future reference or sequence is important (for example, in a regulation). Otherwise, use bullets.

Make implied conditions explicit by using if.

For example:

A party must make advance arrangements with the hearing officer for the transportation and receipt of exhibits of unusual bulk.

Instead, write:

If your exhibits are unusually bulky, you must make advance arrangements for transporting them with the hearing.

Avoid using an exception where it’s rather easy to use a category. 

For example:

All persons except those 18 years or older…

Instead, say:

Each person under 18 years of age…

But use an exception if it avoids a long and cumbersome list or elaborate description.

For example:

Alabama, Alaska,… and Wyoming (a list of 47 states) must…

Instead, say:

Each state except Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona must…

Place words carefully

Reduce ambiguity in a sentence with these techniques:

• Keep subjects and objects close to their verbs. 
• Put conditionals such as “only” or “always” and other modifiers next to the words they modify. 

Paragraphs

Have a topic sentence

Topic sentence tells the reader what they are going to read about in the paragraph. Use a topic sentence at the beginning of a paragraph to: 

• establish a context for your audience before you provide them with the details, and 
• help busy readers skim the document.

Use transition words

Transition word or phrase clearly tells the audience whether the paragraph expands on the previous paragraph, contrasts with it, or takes a completely different direction.

There are three types of transitioning words:

1. Pointing words: for example, this, that, these, those, and the.
2. Echo links: words or phrases that echo a previously mentioned idea. They often work together with pointing words. For example, this process.
3. Explicit connectives: words that facilitate transitions. For example, further, also, therefore.

Explicit connectives for different situations:

• Adding a point: also, and, in addition, besides, what is more, similarly, further 
• Giving an example: for instance, for example, for one thing, for another thing 
• Re-stating: in other words, that is, in short, put differently, again
• Introducing a result: so, as a result, thus, therefore, accordingly, then
• Contrasting: but, however, on the other hand, still, nevertheless, conversely
• Summing up: to summarize, to sum up, to conclude, in conclusion, in short
• Sequencing ideas: First, Second, Third, Finally

Write short paragraphs

A paragraph should be no more than 150 words and three to eight sentences. It should never exceed 250 words. 

Vary the lengths of paragraphs to make them more interesting. Occasional one-sentence paragraphs are okay. 

Put only one topic or idea in each paragraph. Use separate paragraphs for multiple topics.

Use examples 

They help to clarify complex concepts. Good examples can substitute for long explanations. 

Avoid using the Latin abbreviations for “for example” (e.g.) and “that is” (i.e.).

Use vertical lists 

Highlight a series of requirements, conditions, exceptions, or other information in a visually clear way using vertical lists.

If using bullets, use only solid rounds or solid squares.

Always use a lead-in sentence to explain the list. Indent the lead-in sentence from the left margin. Use left justification only.

Use parallel construction. Make sure each of the bullets in a list can make a complete sentence if combined with the lead-in sentence.

Use tables and illustrations

Tables help the audience see relationships that are often hidden in dense text. Tables also help readers quickly get to only those possibilities and conditions that apply to their situation.

Use illustrations to convey information more clearly. 

Use emphasis to highlight important concepts

Use bold and italics to make important concepts stand out. Use it sparingly. 

Do not use all caps – it’s considered rude. 

Do not use underline – people confuse it for links. 

Minimize cross-references

Do not overuse cross-references. Arrange your document to minimize cross-references. Repeat brief references instead of cross referencing. 

If you must use them: 

• Use only for long references.
• Include section title or heading in the cross-reference so that readers can decide if they need to read it.
• Put them at the end of the text like references.

Avoid multiple cross-references in one section.

Avoid unnecessary cross-references put in to ensure that your users don’t miss something that applies to them.

Do not cross-reference definitions or the same section.

Do not use all-inclusive cross references. Clearly specify which ones you’re referring to.

Do not cross reference a cross-reference.

Keep your cross-references updated.

Referring to another agency’s regulations

If you want to require users to comply with certain requirements of another federal agency, which they would not otherwise have to do, you have to meet the requirements of the Office of the Federal Register (OFR). Refer to OFR’s Drafting Legal Documents.

Referring to other material in regulations

Similarly, OFR has rules for “incorporation by reference”, that is a cross-reference to material that does not appear in the Federal Register or the Code of Federal Regulation. Refer to OFR’s Document Drafting Handbook. 

Design your document for easy reading

Documents that are easy on the eye are easier to understand.

Use design elements to highlight important points and to ensure the reader reads the most important parts of the document.

Replace blocks of text with headings, tables, and lists to create more white space. 

Use short sentences and sections to break up dense text into visually manageable chunks.

Have five or six sections on each printed page (about two on each typewritten page). 

Use lists and tables often, but don’t overuse them and don’t have lists within lists. 

Use ragged right margins where possible, rather than fully justifying your text.

PART I

To be continued…